Roast Beef Gfor Iron Deficiency Anemia

The Touch on of Cooking of Beef on the Supply of Heme and Not-Heme Iron for Humans ()

Gille Gandemerⁱ, Valérie Scislowski², Stéphane Portanguen³, Alain Kondjoyan^3*
1Sectionalization Sciences and Process Engineering of Agricultural Products, INRAE (Institut National de Recherche Cascade l'Agronomics, l'Alimentation et l'Environnement), Nantes, French republic.
^twoADIV (Viande Operation), Clermont-Ferrand, France.
³UR370 QuaPA, INRAE (Institut National de Recherche Pour l'Agriculture, 50'Alimentation et 50'Environnement), Saint-Genès-Champanelle, France.
DOI: 10.4236/fns.2020.117045   PDFHTML XML 372 Downloads ane,403 Views Citations

Abstruse

Ruby meat contains a high proportion of heme atomic number 26 (Hullo) which is absorbed at a far college extent into the blood than the not-heme iron (NHI) found in plants. Notwithstanding, HI and NHI are expelled in the juice during cooking while a fraction of Hi is converted into NHI, thus decreasing iron bioavailability. This paper relies on experiments and the utilize of modeling. The kinetics of the conversion of Hello into NHI was measured and modeled in juice extracted from uncooked beefiness meat, and beef cubes were cooked to measure out the variations of Howdy/NHI contents. In meat, HI/NHI ratio decreased from 2.0 when it was raw to less than 1.0 for the longest heat treatments and highest temperatures. The model was used to predict the effect of cooking conditions on the variations of the fe supplied by beef meat. The lowest contribution of meat to iron supply was found for under-force per unit area cooking at temperatures in a higher place 100 ° C.

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Gandemer, G. , Scislowski, V. , Portanguen, S. and Kondjoyan, A. (2020) The Bear on of Cooking of Beef on the Supply of Heme and Not-Heme Iron for Humans. Food and Nutrition Sciences, 11, 629-648. doi: ten.4236/fns.2020.117045.

ane. Introduction

Fe deficiency is identified as the well-nigh mutual nutritional trouble in the world, affecting several billion people, mainly children, meaning women and women of child-begetting age, both in developing countries and in Europe [1] [2] [three]. Iron deficiency tin can increase the mortality and morbidity of both mother and child at birth [4], subtract the mental and psychomotor development of children [v] and alter work performance and resistance to infection [6].

In humans of normal status, iron assimilation is higher when meat is part of the diet for at least 3 reasons. Firstly, ruby-red meat supplies high amounts of iron, mainly How-do-you-do as myoglobin. Secondly, far more HI is absorbed than NHI (xv% - 40% versus ii% - ten%) [7] - [12]. Thirdly, meat favors NHI absorption, through the and so-called "meat factor" which could be related to cysteine-containing peptides arising from muscle protein hydrolysis in the intestines [13] [14]. In dissimilarity, NHI in the absenteeism of the meat factor is poorly absorbed considering many components of diets such as tannins and polyphenols inhibit its absorption [xv] [16] [17]. Several descriptive models (statistical or compartmental) have been developed to predict iron bioavailability in various diets [12] [eighteen] [19]. One of the main parameters affecting the quality of prediction is the Hullo content in diets and the changes in both Howdy and NHI content during cooking [12].

Carmine meats from beef, horse, and lamb generally comprise high amounts of atomic number 26 and particularly How-do-you-do. The effect of animal species and muscle blazon on Howdy and NHI contents has been reported in details in the literature [20] - [25]. In contrast, the effects of meat cooking on Hi and NHI contents are less documented and much information is lacking (Table 1). Information technology has been established that heating causes changes in HI and NHI contents in meat through several mechanisms. Offset, part of HI and NHI is expelled into the juice during cooking [26]. 2d, heating over sixty˚C induces the progressive denaturing of globin, which leads to an increase in insoluble Hullo in meat and juice [27] [28]. Third, part of Hi is converted into NHI during meat cooking through oxidation of the porphyrin band [23] [26] [29]. The relative contributions of these phenomena to iron cooking losses depend on many parameters including the type of cooking equipment, functioning, and control, the time-temperature treatment chosen, and meat cut geometry

Tabular array 1. Issue of dissimilar cooking modes and conditions on the cooking yield, the Hello and NHI contents, and on the HI/NHI ratio measured in literature for meat. Cooking yield is based on the variations of the sample weights recorded in the literature papers (ratio of the mass of the cooked meat piece to the mass of the raw meat piece multiplied by 100). The percentages of iron, of Hello, and NHI contents are calculated by 100C_Fe/(C_Fe)_raw, 100C_HI/(C_HI)_raw, 100C_NHI/(C_NHI)_raw respectively.

and size [23] [24]. Comparing the information on the quantification of iron losses and iron conversion is often difficult considering measurements are performed on meat cuts of different shapes and sizes that are heated using various cooking modes and under different time-temperature conditions.

The application of experimental designs will always exist limited to compensate for the lack of literature whereas combining modeling and experiments is a practiced way to better understand the corresponding effects of the unlike reactions and mechanisms observed experimentally and to predict non-measured data [30]. The purpose of this newspaper is to draw a method to better the prediction of both HI and NHI losses in meat pieces due to juice expulsion and to the conversion of Hullo into NHI past the evolution of a mathematical combined heat-mass transfer and reaction model. This model, oftentimes mentioned in the post-obit equally "the transfer-reaction model", is used at the terminate of the paper to hash out the effect of cooking fashion and time-temperature conditions on the atomic number 26 supply for consumers of beef meat.

2. Approach, Experimental Procedure and Mathematical Model

In the first stride, the reaction kinetics of the thermal conversion of Hullo into NHI was measured in meat juice and modeled under a broad range of time-temperature atmospheric condition. So meat cubes were cooked in a water bathroom to decide the variations of the Hi and NHI contents due both to juice expulsion and to thermal conversion. During experiments, the heating of the samples was virtually of the time continued well beyond the usual cooking durations to be able to test the robustness and accurateness of the numerical model nether these extreme conditions.

two.1. Experiments

2.1.1. Meat Samples

The meat came from muscles of 2 - iii-yr-onetime Charolais cows, vacuumpacked and then aged for 12 days at 4˚C. Two muscles were used: longissimus thorasis and semimembranosus (named in the following LT and SM respectively). The pH was nigh five.v. Muscles were frozen at −eighty˚C until the experiments were performed. Earlier the experiments, the meat was thawed at four˚C for 48 hours and then cut into appropriate pieces to extract juice or to be cooked. Meat remaining after cutting was used to determine the initial contents of Hello and NHI in raw meat. The dry out thing contents of the samples ranged from 22% to 25% while the fatty content ranged from 3% to five%.

two.1.two Measured Kinetics of the Conversion of HI into NHI in Meat Juice

Juice was extracted from SM pieces most 300 g (30 × 50 × 200 mm) according to the process of [31]. The pieces were frozen slowly to weaken the muscle cells through the formation of large ice crystals and so thawed before the pressing stage. Juice was extracted through iii successive steps under 300 confined (the muscle sample was folded and placed once again in the device to be squeezed 3 times) using a hydraulic press and a specific device to maintain the muscle (Figure 1). Juices were nerveless, filtered on a sintered glass under a low vacuum and then freeze-dried and stored at −fourscore˚C. Fresh juice accounted on average for 31% of meat weight and contained 10.2% of dry thing. To determine the kinetics, juices were restored to a final density of 1.022 in distilled water. An aliquot of juice (15 mL) was poured into a examination tube, closed hermetically. Tubes were heated in the following conditions: 50˚C for 7, xx, 40 and 60 min, threescore˚C for x, xx, twoscore and 300 min, 80˚C for 10, twenty, 60, 180 and 300 min, 89˚C for 10, 60, 180 and 300 min, 98˚C for ten, 60, 180, 300 and 900 min, 120˚C for ten, lx, 180 and 300 min. To correctly determine the kinetics parameters, information technology was necessary that the measurements reflect the evolution of the reaction rates at the different temperature levels. As these rates were initially unknown, a step-by-stride approach was applied to determine the most suitable measurement times for each of the temperature levels starting from the lowest temperatures. This stride-by-step arroyo explains why the measurement times were sometimes different from one temperature level to another. Times of 900 min and fifty-fifty 300 min are much longer than those commonly used for cooking beefiness meat, but these long experimental times were needed to precisely make up one's mind the model's parameters to predict the conversion of HI into NHI. The tubes were heated in a water bath (upwardly to 98˚C) or an oil-bath (for 120˚C). They were and then cooled in ice-water until the

Figure 1. Schematic representation of the system of juice extraction (made in dichromate steel). This device is placed under a press generating a pressure level of 300 bar (15 t). The meat sample is placed betwixt parts A and B of the device equally shown in the graph. Function B of the device has a slope of 10% which allows the juice to menstruation during pressing. During pressing, it is estimated that the surface area of the sample is multiplied by 5 (for an initial surface area of 150 cm², the terminal surface expanse is about 750 cm²) but it remains much smaller than the full area of the role B of the device that is greater than 2500 cm².

temperature fell to four˚C. 4 tubes were heated to found each kinetics point. One was used to monitor the temperature kinetics in the tube with a thermocouple and the three others to measure the How-do-you-do and NHI contents in meat juice after heating. How-do-you-do and NHI contents were besides determined in triplicate in freshly restored juice (from the juice freeze-dried).

ii.1.3. Measured Kinetics of Howdy and NHI in Meat Pieces

Thawed pieces of LT were cut into pocket-sized cubes: 30 × thirty × 30 mm. Iv cubes of meat were used for each signal/time of the kinetics. Ane was used to measure the evolution of temperature in the sample and the iii others for atomic number 26 analyses after heating. Meat was heated in a water bath. The raw meat cubes were placed on racks and directly immersed in the h2o at 60˚C, 80˚C or 95˚C for 60, 180, or 300 min. Measurements were too performed after 30 min of heating at 80˚C and 95˚C to obtain a more accurate assay of the kinetics. At the end of the heating time, the samples were quickly cooled in a freezer until the internal temperate roughshod to iv˚C. How-do-you-do and NHI contents were determined in triplicate for each kinetics point to summate the standard deviation.

2.one.4. HI and NHI Measurements

Hello was determined subsequently extracting heme in acidified acetone according to the method of [32]. Samples of meat (2 - 4 chiliad) or juice (iv mL) were homogenized for xv seconds with a polytron in acidified acetone mixture (acetone/water/pure HCl: twoscore/9/1). The samples were placed in the night for 20 hours earlier centrifuging at 2200 rpm for 10 min. The supernatants were filtered on Whatman paper and the absorbance was measured at 640 nm. The Hullo concentration was calculated using a standard curve made of hydrochloride-hemin in acidified acetone mixture.

NHI was adamant using ferrozine as described past [23] and [33]. Briefly, samples of meat (2 - 4 yard) and juice (4 mL) were mixed with three volumes of 0.1 M citrate-phosphate buffer, pH 5.v. The samples were homogenized with a Polytron for several seconds. And then, 1 mL of 2% ascorbic acid in 0.ii North HCl was added to 3 mL of homogenate and kept at room temperature for fifteen min. Next, 1 mL of 11.three% TCA was added to precipitate proteins. After, the homogenate was centrifuged at 3000× g for 10 min at room temperature. One mL of the supernatant was mixed with 0.8 mL of 10% ammonium acetate and 0.two mL of ferrozine reagent. The absorbance was read at 562 nm against a blank. The NHI concentration was calculated using a standard curve made of FeCl₂ in 0.1 N HCl solution. Total atomic number 26 was calculated by adding the How-do-you-do and NHI contents.

The results were expressed equally µg/grand dry matter in meat and µg/mL in juice. Meat dry out matter was adamant by drying meat samples (about ii - 5 g) in an oven at 105˚C co-ordinate to the normalized method [34].

2.2. Mathematical Transfer-Reaction Modeling

The total model combined the calculations of the rut-mass transfer model previously described by [35] and those of the thermal reaction model developed in the present paper to predict the conversion of HI into NHI in the meat.

Meat is a multi-composite structure and juice expulsion during cooking is the event of complex phenomena. When the meat is heated, h2o begins to unbound to proteins and myofibers and collagenous tissues contract. This thermal contraction exerts a stiff mechanical force per unit area on the juice located inside the fibers and between the different muscle bundles. This mechanical pressure level expels the juice from the meat through multiple channels of unlike sizes that pass in between the fibers and in between the primary and the secondary bundles [36] [37]. This migration of juice under mechanical stress is anisotropic and leads to a reduction of the meat piece volume. Advanced estrus-mass transfer models have been developed in the literature to predict the expelling of juice under mechanical pressure [38] [39]. However, they do non consider the multi-composite nature of the beef meat piece, the flowing of juice into channels of different sizes, etc. Thus, discrepancies remain between the predictions of these models and the water content profiles measured in the meat. Faced with this situation we accept decided to draw juice expelling past an observation-based model using a unproblematic relation and a few parameters, to have enough time: i) to exam information technology under different cooking situations, and 2) to decide the kinetics of the reactions responsible for the variations of the meat nutritional qualities. Our juice transfer model [35], is based on experimental observations and on the assumptions that: 1) the unbounding of water from proteins and the pressure effects exerted by collagen tissues on juice migration depend on the spatial variations of temperature within the meat, 2) the water concentration at one point of the meat (expressed on a dry matter basis) can never be less than the equilibrium h2o content calculated from the maximum temperature reached that indicate of the meat, and 3) effects of crust germination on juice expelling can be neglected.

Model's parameters are given in Table two. The variation of the concentration of Fe in meat (C_{Atomic number 26} being either C_HI or C_NHI) as the part of time depended on both juice expulsion and thermal conversion through the two mathematical terms ${\left(\frac{\partial C_{\text{Fe}}}{\partial t}\right)}_{exp}$ and ${\left(\frac{\partial C_{\text{Fe}}}{\partial t}\right)}_{conv}$ :

$\frac{\partial C_{\text{Fe}}}{\partial t}={\left(\frac{\partial C_{\text{Iron}}}{\partial t}\right)}_{exp}+{\left(\frac{\partial C_{\text{Fe}}}{\partial t}\right)}_{co\mathrm{northward}\mathrm{five}}$ (one)

A conduction model is used to calculate the space-time variation of temperature in the meat (Equation (two), Table 3). This result is used to calculate the variations of the concentrations through Equations (2)-(vi) nether the hypotheses detailed in Table iii. Our juice transfer model was based on a reaction-similar equation. There was no water transport equation, and the issue of the water migration on the spatial water content in the meat was indirectly considered by varying the reaction rate abiding, not only as a function of temperature merely also as the office of the distance from the surface [35].

Tabular array 3. Assumptions and equations used in the combined model.

Using the equations of Tabular array 3 the Equation (1) became:

$\frac{\partial C_{\text{Fe}}}{\partial t}=-{\mathrm{chiliad}}_{e\mathrm{ten}p}\left(T,d\right)\left(\frac{\mathrm{10}-X_{\mathrm{eastward}q}\left(T\right)}{1+{\mathrm{10}}_0}\right)C_{\text{Fe}}-\mathrm{due\; east}{\mathrm{1000}}_{con\mathrm{five}}{C}_{\text{Hello}}$, while $X>{\mathrm{10}}_{eq}\left(T\right)$ (vii)

with e being equal to +ane for C_Howdy and to −1 for C_NHI. Juice expulsion was stopped as soon as X = 10_eq(T) and so the variations of C_HI and C_NHI were only due to thermal conversion. The parameters values of the rut-mass transfer model detailed in Table ii are those used in [35].

Equations (ii), (4), (half dozen) and (7) constituted the combined system to be solved to obtain the space-time variations of C_Iron in the meat. This combined transfer-reaction model was implemented in COMSOL Multiphysics® 3.4, which solves systems of nonlinear differential equations past the finite element method. When the cooking methods and weather were closed to that of our previous paper as for immersion cooking, stewing, roasting under pure steam weather condition, or mixed air-steam atmospheric condition, or even under dry air cooking for roast beef meat slice, Neumann boundary conditions were used in the heat transfer model and the values of the heat transfer coefficients, and the other parameters, were those used previously nether the same conditions [35]. For different air velocities and/or more than important radiation conditions an constructive transfer coefficient was calculated every bit in [40] [41]. In the case of contact heating, a 100˚C Dirichlet boundary condition was simply practical on the contacting surface.

The numerical process and numerical mesh were the same as in [35] [42]. Spatial C_{Atomic number 26} values calculated by the model in the meat cubes were averaged at each cooking fourth dimension to obtain the average concentration values in a given volume $\overline{C}$ ; these calculated values were compared later to the iron content measured in the same book and at the aforementioned fourth dimension.

The predictions of the full quantity of juice expelled from the meat by the model had been compared to experimental measurements, in a previous paper, for beef meat cubes and cuboids heated in water bath from 50˚C up to 90˚C [35]. The transfer model was besides tested for steaks and roasts of different dimensions cooked in an oven under 10% steam injection or pure steam injection weather condition, and nether dry air atmospheric condition at a temperature of 90˚C or of 250˚C. Despite its simplicity, the transfer model proved to be able to predict the mass of juice that was expelled from the meat under all these situations [35]. In the case of contact, the model had not been validated and the calculated values were considered equally more approximate than those obtained nether the other cooking situations.

The parameters of the reaction of conversion of HI into NHI (k₀ and E_a) were the only one which had not been determined in [35]. Thus, they accept been identified in the present paper from the experiments performed in the extracted meat juice past minimizing the sum of squared differences between the experimental and the calculated results.

2.3. Estimations of the Atomic number 26 Supply Related to Beef Meat Consumption

The amounts of the HI and NHI contents in the cooked meat were assumed to result from a 100 g raw meat portion completely eaten by the consumer. This is to reflect some typical French meals when beef meat is consumed without other important sources of fe coming from institute foods. As the French consume only 46 g of butcher's meat per day on boilerplate this typical French meal did not occur every day anymore. The potential amount of iron absorbed past the consumer (PAIA) during these typical French meals was calculated every bit followed:

$\left[\text{PAIA}\right]=\left[\text{HIweight}\times \text{HIabs}\right]+\left[\text{NHIweight}\times \text{NHIabs}\right]$ (8)

The absorbed proportion of Hi and NHI: HIabs and NHIabs, were chosen to be equal to 0.25 and 0.05 respectively. These values are means of what is reported in the literature for both fe forms estimated for many diets in various experimental conditions for humans with normal iron status [8] [9] [12] [15]. The PAIA was calculated here as mg of absorbed atomic number 26. Information technology is widely accepted that developed men and menstruating women must absorb 0.9 and ane.6 mg atomic number 26 per day, respectively, to embrace their iron requirements [43] [44]. The ratio betwixt the PAIA and these 2 values of 0.9 and one.6 indicated the contribution in pct of each meat portion of these typical French meals in covering the daily requirement for an adult human being and a menstruating woman. The PAIA was calculated for 2 beef muscles: longissimus thoracis (LT), and semimembranosus (SM), as the former is used for grilling and roasting, while the latter is an example of a tougher musculus that can be braised, stewed or fifty-fifty pressure cooked. HI and NHI contents in 100 g of the raw muscles were respectively: 1.56 ± 0.23 mg and 0.66 ± 0.06 mg for LT, 1.74 ± 0.22 and 0.64 ± 0.07 mg for SM.

3. Results and Discussion

Model Equations (1)-(seven) were applied for all the types of cooking methods considered in this paper; these equations are uncompleted when the heating is due to microwave treatments (not considered in this paper). The model parameters connected to the heat and mass transfers inside the meat had been determined in a previous study [35]. Thus, the but unknown parameter values were those of k₀ and East_a which were determined from the How-do-you-do kinetics measured in the heated meat juice. Model predictions in meat were validated by comparison calculations to the measurements obtained in meat cubes heated in the water bath. Finally, the boundary conditions were adapted to predict the variations of the HI and NHI contents in meat pieces cooked nether unlike cooking methods and time-temperature conditions than in the water bath.

iii.1. Kinetics of the Thermal Conversion of HI into NHI in Meat Juice

When the temperature of the bath ranged from 50˚C to 98˚C, the kinetics of temperature in the exam tube was fast and the juice temperature in the tube reached 90% of the bathroom temperature in less than 10 min. When the oil bath temperature was 120˚C, the juice temperature kinetics was slower and 20 minutes were needed for the juice temperature in the test tube to attain 90% of the bathroom temperature.

The non-cooked rehydrated juice contained 10.2% of DM and 18.7 ± 0.vii µg full iron/mL. HI represented 15.1 ± 0.3 µg/mL, accounting for fourscore.vi% ± 3.8% of the full fe content. At a bath temperature of 50˚C, the How-do-you-do content in the juice was constant throughout the heating experiment. At 60˚C, it was still 92% of its initial value later 300 min of heating. Over 60˚C, the decrease of the Hello content in the juice was much college with only 4% of its initial value remaining after 300 min of heating at 120˚C (Figure 2). The variation in How-do-you-do content in the juice during heating was calculated using the Equations (5), (6). The values of k₀ and Due east_a were determined by minimizing the differences betwixt the experimental and calculated results, either using the water bath temperature, or the temperature measured in the exam tube. No meaning differences in the decision of thou₀ and E_a and the prediction of the experimental data were observed when the bath temperature ranged from 50˚C to 98˚C, while test tube temperature measurements were required to accurately predict HI conversion when the bath temperature was 120˚C. The k₀ and E_a values adamant using test tube measurements were 69,420 ± 5300 due south^−ane and 64,520 ± 210 Jmole⁻ⁱ, respectively. The average difference between measurements and predictions using these parameter values was 0.7 µg/ml (Figure 2). The decrease of the Hi content at all the bath temperatures was indeed associated with a simultaneous increment of the NHI content in the juice. The analyses of these simultaneous variations, illustrated in Figure three for the 120˚C treatment, were used to cheque that we were able to accurately monitor the conversion of Hi into NHI. Literature data on the conversion of HI into NHI are mostly measured in the meat for product temperature of less than 100˚C and heating durations of less than one hour [28] [45]. This explains why this conversion is nearly often express (less than 20% of the initial HI content) which is consequent with our results (conversion of Hi into NHI during 1 hour of heating at 98˚C is about 20% in Figure two).

Figure 2. Kinetics of the subtract of heme iron (Howdy) due to its conversion into not-heme iron (NHI) in juice extracted from SM muscle and heated at different temperatures (symbols). Comparing of these measurements with the values calculated using Equations (5) and (6) with chiliad₀ = 69,420 s⁻¹ and E_a = 64,520 Jmole⁻¹ (full lines). For pocket-sized SD, error bars tin can exist hidden by the size of the dots. During the experiments, the heating of the juice was continued well beyond the usual cooking durations to be able to test the robustness and accuracy of the numerical model under these longest conditions.

Figure three. Measured fourth dimension-related variations of HI and NHI in juice extracted from SM muscle and heated at 120˚C (lines are not predicted values simply merely connections between the measured points). For pocket-sized SD, error bars can be hidden by the size of the dots.

3.ii. Use of the Transfer-Reaction Model to Analyze Iron Variations for the Meat Cubes Heated in Water Bath

The values calculated from Equations (five) (6) (grand₀ beingness 69,420 southward⁻¹ and E_a 64,520 Jmole⁻¹) were added to those issued from the oestrus-mass transfer model (Equations (ii) to (iv)) to predict the variations of the local Hi and NHI contents in the heated meat cubes due to both thermal conversion and juice expulsion. Temperature gradients inside the 3 cm sided cube were loftier only during the commencement xxx min, equally afterward the temperature could be considered as homogenous within information technology [35] [46]. The raw meat used during the experiments on the 3 cm side cubes cut from the LT muscle contained 2.54 ± 0.03 mg total iron/100g raw meat and ane.81 ± 0.02 mg Hullo, which represents 71.0% ± 0.9% of the full iron. These values were shut to those found in the literature which showed that Hullo in beef is composed of between 60% - 80% total fe [23] [45] [47]. In the following iron content is expressed for our results on a meat dry matter ground to consider both the variations due to juice expulsion and to thermal conversion.

Equally expected, the HI content measured in the meat tended to subtract with time; this decrease was more than pronounced at 80˚C than at 60˚C (Figure 4). A further increase of the water bathroom temperature up to 95˚C led to more complex kinetics. The measured Hi content in the meat at 95˚C decreased from 0 to 30 min then remained steady between 30 and 60 min and so decreased once again between 60 and 300 min.

The Howdy kinetics predicted by the model at lx˚C and 80˚C ((1) and (2) in Effigy four) agreed with the measurements at these 2 temperatures whereas the calculations underestimated the HI content in the meat at 95˚C (curve 3 in Effigy 4). It was possible during the calculations to separate the part of the HI loss due to juice expulsion from that which came from HI conversion into NHI (commencement and second terms in Equation (7)). These separate calculations show that the decrease of HI in the 3 cm side cubes was mainly due to juice expulsion during the first 30 min whatsoever the heating temperature, and totally due to the conversion of HI into NHI after 60 min of heating at 95˚C. The fact that the combined transfer-reaction model (1 - 7) was able to predict the kinetics obtained at sixty˚C and 80˚C supports the assumptions on which the model relied for these two temperatures, i.due east. the fact that Hello was expelled in the juice at a concentration proportional to its local concentration in the meat while part of the Hi remaining in the meat was converted into NHI at a rate which corresponded to the conversion observed in the juice and described mathematically by Equations (v, six) (Figure 2). The failure of the model during the heat treatment later on threescore minutes at 95˚C was due to a phenomenon not previously considered in the model, namely the loss of heme protein solubility which was visually observed past [26], by a change of color of the expelled juice that occurred betwixt 77˚C and 97˚C. Like us, these authors also measured a higher HI content (on DM basis) in the meat afterward 1h of heating at 97˚C than afterward ane h at eighty˚C. This stopping of Hullo decreases in the meat after 30 min at 95˚C, clearly visible in our measured kinetics, indicated heme protein coagulation which occurred during heating (Effigy iv). Afterwards 1 h of heating, the variations of the Howdy content in the meat were due only to the thermal conversion of HI into NHI. Considering the experimental errors, the NHI variations in the meat were the same for the three h2o bath temperatures (60˚C, lxxx˚C, 95˚C). An average of these variations is given in Effigy 5. NHI content decreased during the first 30 min, remained steady between thirty - threescore min and then showed a moderate increment (Effigy v). The model was used to calculate the expulsion of NHI in the juice and its germination through the conversion of Hello which remained in the meat into NHI. The predictions calculated at 60˚C and 80˚C reproduced these temporal variations which reflect the slowing down and so stopping of the HI and NHI expelled in the juice due to the cease of meat protein contraction, and of the conversion of the HI content which remained in the meat into NHI, which connected afterwards the expulsion of the juice (Figure 5). The calculated quantity of NHI expelled in the juice and the conversion rate of Hullo into NHI were different at lx˚C and fourscore˚C, only their balances were similar, leading to like NHI curves. The similarity of the NHI kinetics measured at 95˚C with that measured at 60˚C and 80˚C, suggested that the residual between NHI expulsion and formation was as well similar above eighty˚C.

The HI/NHI ratio was ii.0 in the raw meat and its decrease was different between threescore˚C and 80˚C. The subtract was less pronounced at 60˚C than at 80˚C where information technology reached 1.five, 1.1 and 0.ix after i h, two h and 5 h of heating, respectively. [26], who measured a ratio of 2.0 in raw meat, institute a ratio of 1.ii and 1.1 after 1 h of heating at 77˚C and 97˚C, respectively (Table one).

Figure 4. Comparison between the time-form of the Hullo concentration measured in the 3 × 3 × 3 cm meat cubes immersed in the water bathroom at 60˚C, fourscore˚C or 95˚C (foursquare, circle and triangle symbols respectively) and the values predicted by our combined transfer-reaction model at the same water bath temperatures: sixty˚C (one, line), 80˚C (2, line) and 95˚C (3, line).

Effigy 5. Comparison between the fourth dimension-course of the boilerplate NHI concentration measured in the 3 × 3 × three cm meat cubes immersed in the h2o bath measured at sixty˚C, 80˚C and 95˚C (symbols) or predicted by the transfer-reaction model at lx˚C and 80˚C and so averaged.

four. Effects of Cooking Mode and Time-Temperature Conditions on the Iron Supply Related to Meat Consumption

The combined transfer-reaction model was used to predict the variations of HI and NHI and their potential nutritional impacts for meat pieces cooked co-ordinate to the most widely culinary practices in France (microwave cooking being excluded here). The equations of the model and the values of the parameters were those of Table two and Tabular array 3. HI expelling was stopped equally soon as the average temperature of the meat exceeded 80˚C to consider the upshot of heme protein coagulation. The boundary weather and the sample dimensions were inverse according to the type of cooking methods and meat cuts commonly used in practice. Details on the application of the boundary conditions tin can be found in [35] [40] [41] [42]. In practice, for the same cooking method, the equipment can exist different and a range of boundary conditions has to exist applied to consider these variations. Since the dimensions of the sample can besides be dissimilar this leads to a range of juice loss and cooking yield every bit shown in Table 4. This tabular array is just a option of some of the results obtained during a wider fix of calculations, the purpose of this selection being to requite an guild of magnitude of the nutritional impacts of the different cooking modes and time-temperature weather condition used in France. In the following, the iron expelled from the meat piece into the juice was supposed to be lost for the consumer. However, it should be noticed that in some recipes office of the expelled juice and its atomic number 26 content is consumed.

HI and NHI losses can be calculated from the values reported in Table 4 by comparing the initial How-do-you-do and NHI contents in the raw meat to the contents in the meat pieces subjected to different cooking conditions; the losses being expressed equally percentages of the initial HI or NHI contents for a 100 one thousand portion of the raw meat. Unsurprisingly, the calculations showed that the shortest cooking conditions (less than five min) and the lowest cooking temperatures (less than 55˚C - threescore˚C) lead to the smallest fe losses. For the steaks cooked rare, the losses are on the average 12% of the initial Hi or NHI content in the raw meat. These variations tin can be compared to the animate being-to-animal variability assessed by the ratio of the standard deviation of the iron measured in the same raw musculus for different animals to the average iron content measured on all the animals. Under the shortest cooking conditions, animal variability was of the same guild of magnitude as the variation of iron due to cooking. The values issued from (three, four) and from (five, vi) were as well used to compare the relative contribution of expulsion and conversion to the global losses. This comparison shows that under the shortest cooking conditions almost all the HI losses were due to juice expulsion. Roasting bigger meat pieces at higher temperatures increases irons losses and conversion of HI into NHI and thus decreases the contribution of the meat portion to the PAIA. For example, such a portion of meat, issued from a big very well-done roast contributes but to 29% - 37% and 16% - 21% of the PAIA for an

Table iv. Nutritional impacts of cooking on the estimated Potential Corporeality of Iron Absorbed (PAIA) and on the contribution of 100 thousand of raw beef meat cooked in different ways to the daily iron requirement for developed man (0.9 mg/twenty-four hour period) and menstrual woman (1.60 mg/mean solar day). These values accept been estimated from model calculations under the different assumptions detailed in the text of the paper. When the meat was cut in steaks or in roasts calculated results depended on the dimensions of the meat pieces. The values given in this table take been calculated for a steak of twenty × 70 × 70 millimeters and for a lx × 60 × 110 mm meat roast. PAIA was estimated considering Howdy and NHI absorption rate were 25% and v% respectively. The formula was PAIA = (0.25 × HI weight + 0.05 NHI weight) for each cooked or raw meat, in this formula, NHI and HI weights were expressed in mg.

adult man and woman, respectively (Table 4). In this case, the degree of doneness and the size of the meat piece tin affect the contribution of food portions to daily atomic number 26 requirement more than than the biological variability between animals.

In traditional French culinary practice some pieces of beef meat cutting from muscles, or part of muscles known to be tougher, can be braised and/or stewed at temperatures shut to lxxx˚C for more one hour to ensure tenderness. These weather can increase both the fe loss into the juice and the conversion of HI into NHI. An important decrease in both Howdy and NHI content in meat was observed, reducing the PAIA and the contribution of meat portions to the daily iron requirement. Thus, one 60 minutes of stewing an SM portion decreased the amounts of both HI and NHI in the meat portion: −47% and −39% respectively. PAIA was reduced past 45%. The contribution of a stewed meat portion to the daily atomic number 26 requirement of an adult human and an adult adult female cruel to 28% and 16%, respectively. The decreases in both PAIA and the contribution to DIR can be higher when meat is stewed for several hours due to the ongoing conversion of Hello to NHI.

The model was also used to assess the variation of HI and NHI contents during a 1-hour pressure cooking at 118˚C (the highest temperature that a domestic pressure cooker can achieve at one.eight bar). In that instance, the average meat temperature raised well above 80˚C, leading to the coagulation of heme protein which stopped the expelling of Hello into the juice. Heme poly peptide coagulation was non included in the model which rendered the model more than express in that case. Yet, this phenomenon was simulated in the calculations by stopping the flow of iron in the juice every bit presently as the meat average temperature exceeded 80˚C. Hence, the quantity of How-do-you-do expelled in the juice depended on the time needed for the meat slice to accomplish lxxx˚C, which was connected to the pressure level increment in the cooker and the size of the meat piece. The differences in time needed to reach 80˚C accept led to the different values of the cooking yield given in Table 4 (either 50% or 70%). Afterward, the meat temperature reached 118˚C where it stayed during the residual of the cooking, leading to the conversion of HI into NHI. In the pressure-cooking state of affairs, the calculations showed that the amounts of both HI and NHI fell dramatically: −76% and −38%, respectively. Consequently, the PAIA was reduced by about 45% and the contributions of the SM meat portion to the daily atomic number 26 requirement of an developed man and an adult woman were low: xi% - 15% and half-dozen% - eight%, respectively.

Previous results should exist considered in epidemiological studies on diet for sure sensitive populations, notably women during puberty, period, and pregnancy, and elderly persons of both genders, which tin can have recourse to the virtually impacting cooking methods. It is well known as a full general trend that in Western countries these populations tend to swallow less meat while their iron needs can be the aforementioned or even higher than those of adult men. Using higher time-temperature cooking weather to avoid tough meat (since tender meat is more than expensive or because older people can take masticatory problems), or possible microbial safety issues, or only for reasons of personal gustatory modality, can lead to anemia for sensitive populations if non compensated by other iron supplies. These considerations are not new but they can be better quantified and understood using the proposed modeling approach and results.

These results strongly suggest that cooking meat at low temperatures for a long time preserves heme iron content and bioavailability as illustrated by results in Figure four. Cooking in these mild conditions could be helpful to foreclose or correct atomic number 26 deficiency in populations known to be specifically exposed to this problem in Western countries, such as adult women and poor and/or quondam people who tend to consume less meat than middle-aged men.

5. Conclusions

The effect of cooking on meat iron content is linked to both the loss of iron (HI and NHI) from the meat piece by juice expulsion and the conversion of HI into NHI in the meat piece. When the meat temperature was nether eighty˚C, Hello was expelled in the juice. Above fourscore˚C, heme proteins coagulated and HI expulsion was stopped while the conversion of HI into NHI remained. Due to these phenomena, the HI/NHI ratio decreased from 2.0 when it was raw to less than i.0 for the longest rut treatments and highest temperatures. The model was used to assess the event of cooking on the contribution of 100 m of raw beef meat issued from ii dissimilar muscles to the daily fe requirement for men and menstruating women. Shortest cooking durations and everyman heating temperatures have well-nigh no event on the iron supply while roasting large meat pieces, braising and stewing at higher temperatures decreased this contribution. The lowest contribution of meat to iron supply was found for under-pressure cooking at temperatures above 100˚C, ofttimes used in practice to avoid tough meat or possible microbial rubber bug. During our calculations, the iron expelled from the meat piece into the juice was supposed to be lost for the consumer. However, it should be noticed that in certain recipes (stews or casseroles) part of this released fe volition be consumed, thus increasing the iron supply.

The newspaper was focused on fe supply and thus on the nutritional consequences of cooking. All the same, the present results and model tin can also help to meliorate quantify the effect of cooking on the sensorial and toxicological properties of cooked meat due to oxidation if they are associated with more circuitous reaction schemes [48]. All these works volition contribute to the design of tailor-made diets, containing meat, to ensure sensorial pleasance, counterbalanced nutrition, and optimal health.

Acknowledgements

Authors wish to thank the French meat data center (CIV) for funding.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this paper.

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